Math

Motivation Let’s start by doing some arithmetic about large language models (LLMs). These are neural networks with huge parameter counts, with state-of-the-art open-weights models (i.e., ones you can download) having parameter counts of the order of 100B (\(10^{11}\)) or so (and usable ones around one order of magnitude smaller). Take the latest SOTA release Qwen 3 235B-A22B, for instance, which has roughly 235B parameters. If all these parameters were to be stored in a naive array of 32-bit (4 byte) floating point numbers, this model would require around 940 GB of storage as well as memory for a usable speed. Running this model purely on CPU with dual channel DDR4 RAM (which is likely the kind of RAM you have on your computer) would take you multiple seconds to output a single token/word (and even this is quite fast for the total size of the model because the architecture is what is called a Mixture of Experts, more on that later, so don’t worry yet). ...

Background and context Some background on me just so that you have a rough idea of where this review is coming from: I did Olympiads as a kid and have been involved in fairly math-heavy fields ever since, through university at least, depending on your definition of math-heavy. I’ve also been completely self-taught when it comes to the non-elementary-school math I know. So my plan on using my Math Academy subscription was to mostly brush up on things. I also did only the university-level courses. ...

Introduction When we reason qualitatively, we often rely on our intuition. However, intuition is often loaded with certain meta-biases that cloud our judgment; one of these biases comes into play when we think about “local” and “global” statements. What is a local or a global statement? One way of distinguishing between them is how many conditions we must guarantee hold before we can talk about the statement - so this terminology is relative. A local statement is a statement that uses many more conditions (a higher amount of specificity) than a global statement. For example, any statement about a certain group of people in the past few years is a local statement relative to a statement that is about all species that have ever existed on the earth. ...

The other day I had a discussion with someone about how to implement FFT-based convolution/polynomial multiplication - they were having a hard time squeezing their library implementation into the time limit on this problem, and it soon turned into a discussion on how to optimize it as much as possible. It turned out that the bit-reversing part of their iterative implementation was taking a pretty large amount of time, so I suggested not using bit-reversal at all, as is done in a few libraries. Since not a lot of people turned out to be familiar with it, I decided to write a post on some ways of implementing FFT and deriving these ways from one another. ...

Introduction A lot of people shy away from solving (mathematical) recurrences just because the theory is not very clear/approachable due to not having an advanced background in math. As a consequence, the usual ways of solving recurrences tend to be: Find the first few terms on OEIS. Guess terms from the rate of growth of the recurrence (exponential rate of growth means you can sometimes estimate the exponential terms going from largest to smallest — though this fails in cases where there is a double-root of the characteristic equation) Use some theorem whose validity you can’t prove (the so-called characteristic equation method) Overkill using generating functions But this doesn’t have to be the case, because there is a nice method you can apply to solve equations reliably. I independently came up with this method back when I was in middle school, and surprisingly a lot of people have no idea that you can solve recurrences like this. ...

Motivation On a computer science discord server, someone recently asked the following question: Is the master theorem applicable for the following recurrence? \(T(n) = 7T(\lfloor n / 20 \rfloor) + 2T(\lfloor n / 8 \rfloor) + n\) There was some discussion related to how \(T\) is monotonically increasing (which is hard to prove), and then someone claimed that there is a solution using induction for a better bound. However, these ad hoc solutions often require some guessing and the Master theorem is not directly applicable. ...

The contents are as follows: Introduction Why you should use lambdas Some context Hand-rolling our own lambdas C++ lambda syntax explained Using lambdas Using lambdas with the STL Some useful non-trivial patterns Some other interesting patterns Examples of competitive programming code using C++ lambdas Prerequisites: knowing a bit about structs/classes in C++, member functions, knowing that the STL exists. If you feel something is not very clear, I recommend waiting for a bit, because I tried to ensure that all important ideas are explained at some point or another, and if you don’t understand and it doesn’t pop up later, it is probably not that important (and should not harm the experience of reading this post). Nevertheless, if I missed out on explaining something that looks important, please ask me in the comments — I’d be happy to answer your questions! ...

TL;DR The Floyd-Warshall algorithm is a special case of the more general case of aggregation over paths in a graph — in this post, we look at a few examples and point to some references for further study. The algebraic path problem constitutes a family of problems that can be solved using similar techniques. This and this paper develop the theory of semirings in this context, and this treats some computational aspects of it. Kleene algebras are what end up being used in most of the examples given here, but semirings are more general structures. While not discussed in the post, the idea of a valuation algebra is a further generalization that shows connections to more problems of various types. Introduction Most people doing competitive programming who learn about the Floyd-Warshall algorithm learn it in the context of computing the lengths of the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices in a graph on \(n\) vertices in \(O(n^3)\), which is better than naively running Dijkstra or other kinds of shortest-path algorithms (other than Johnson’s algorithm for the sparse case), and can also identify negative cycles. ...

There were a few instances on CF according to which it seems that quite a few people aren’t very comfortable with floor and ceiling functions (and inequalities in general) — for instance, here and here. This inspired me to write a hopefully short post on how to systematically work with these topics. Note that I will not define what a real number is, or do anything that seems too non-elementary. Also, for the foundational stuff, I will rely on some correct intuition rather than rigour to build basic ideas, and the systematic logically correct way of reasoning will be used later. The idea behind this post is to just help you understand how to reason about the topics we’ll cover. ...

This post is intended to be an introduction to permutations for beginners, as there seem to be no resources other than cryptic (for beginners) editorials that talk about some cycles/composition, and people unfamiliar with permutations are left wondering what those things are. We’ll break the post into three major parts based on how we most commonly look at permutations. Of course, even though we will treat these approaches separately (though not so much for the last two approaches), in many problems, you might need to use multiple approaches at the same time and maybe even something completely new. Usually, you’d use these ideas in conjunction with something like greedy/DP after you realize the underlying setup. ...